During the month of August, I continued reading through the remaining volumes of Epigraphia Zeylanica which were volumes 6, 7 and 8. Only the 6th volume had any references to coconuts which I will be elaborating on later. The Inscriptions of Ceylon Volume II Part 1 also had an inscription which mentioned coconuts which I believe is one of the most significant mentions of coconuts to this research.
I also managed to find the book “Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea” edited by Senake Bandaranayake, Lorna Dewaraja, Roland Silva and K.D.G. Wimalaratne which was referenced in W.I. Siriweera’s book “History of Ceylon from the Earliest Times up to the 16th Century” when speaking of the coconut cultivation and industry in Sri Lanka. The “Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea” is a collection of a series of articles and the first article in the book Seaway to Sielediba: Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on Precolonial Sri Lanka by R.A.L.H. Gunawardana had a great deal of information about the coconut cultivation in Sri Lanka and the article led me to the book “India and the Neighbouring Territories as described by Sharif Al-Idrisi” which was written during the 12th century AD.
The Pujavaliya had only two mentions of coconuts in its contents with respect to Sri Lankan history. The two mentions belong to the era of Parakramabahu II and it is similar to the account given in the Culavamsa.
As instructed, I also did some research into the Nandana Gardens which were, according to the Culavamsa, built by King Parakramabahu I. It seems that the garden itself would be easy to locate within the Polonnaruwa Citadel but the history of the garden might be more difficult to determine. The garden was mentioned in “Polonnaruwa: Medieval Capital of Sri Lanka” by Anuradha Seneviratne, Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report 1901, and Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report 1902. I checked the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Reports for the year 1896 and 1897 in the hopes of finding more about the Nandana Uyana but had no luck there.
Let me elaborate further on the findings for this month.
Epigraphia Zeylanica Vol. 6 Part I
The Madirigiri Slab Inscription of Mahinda VI from the 12th century AD embodies regulations meant to prevent the misappropriation of the income of the hospital built in that vicinity by its employees and others so that it would benefit those to whom it was intended, that is, the patients. The inscription goes on to say that the tenants are allowed to drink liquor. In its original script, it says Raha for liquor. Raha means Raa which is the Sinhalese word for Toddy. Clearly, toddy was popular among Sri Lankans and much like today was consumed during celebrations because the inscription also gives permission to play musical instruments and to dance right after giving permission to drink liquor.
In another inscription where an endowment was made to a Siva Temple from Atakada believed to be from either the 11th or 12th century AD there is an indirect reference to coconut oil which is believed to be the very first occurrence of that nature in the entire field of Tamil inscriptions and literature. The Siva temple in question is the Uttama Cola Isvaram and the inscription is believed to be from during the reign of Rajaraja the Great. The donor, whose name is Arankan Ramesan, had gifted, according to this inscription, 50 coconut trees for five cantivilakkus. Cantivilakkus are sacred lamps lit in the evening or early morning. It is believed that the trees were gifted for the purpose of harvesting coconut oil needed for lighting five sacred lamps.
This indicates that coconut trees played a central role not just in Buddhist rituals of lighting lamps but also in Hindu rituals which were a dominant and chief aspect of the lives of Sri Lankans during that day and age. We must also look at the fact that Arankan Ramesan, the donor, gifted fifty coconut trees to this kovil which was probably quite a significant amount of trees for that age and it also implies that he may have had more coconut trees in his possession, perhaps even a plantation. This indicates that Coconut Trees were cultivated in vast numbers.
Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea & Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol. II Part 1
Seaway to Sielediba: Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on Precolonial Sri Lanka, the article by R.A.L.H. Gunawardana in the “Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea” as its title suggests, focused on Sri Lanka’s position and role in the Maritime Silk Route during the time before Precolonial Sri Lanka, that is, before 1505 AD.
In this article, there were several mentions of coconuts and how it was used, mostly by shipbuilders, during that day and age. According to Gunawardana’s article, coir rope would have been a material produced in Sri Lanka which attracted mariners regularly sailing the routes in the Indian Ocean to its shores. He goes on to say that large quantities of coir ropes would have been required by ships which would have resulted in many ships visiting the island frequently. The ropes which were used in ships also had to be oiled regularly, that is, once in about four to six months. It is Gunawardana’s assumption that Coconut oil was used for this purpose. Considering the fact that ropes were used in large quantities, it makes sense to assume that a significant amount of coconut oil would be needed to oil the ropes. Gunawardana also quotes Hourani who had stated that leaves of coconut trees were in use in Arab ships.
The above clearly indicates that there was a significantly large supply of Coconut trees in the coastal areas and on the island which was the only way Sri Lanka could’ve catered to providing large quantities of ropes, and coconut oil and be able to satisfy the domestic demand for coconuts as well.
Gunawardena further states that there are references to extensive coconut plantations during the 5th and 6th centuries some of which were owned by monasteries. Here, he cites one of his own books, “Robe and Plough: Monasticism and Economic Interest in Early Medieval Sri Lanka”; a book which, quite inconveniently, seems to be not available anywhere in Sri Lanka. It is Gunawardana’s belief that the increase in the growth of coconut cultivation and the establishment of growing coconuts in large plantations was due to the growth of trade and shipping more than domestic consumption.
This leads us to the very interesting inscription I came across in the Inscriptions of Ceylon Volume II Part 1.
The Mihintale Rock Inscription which is believed to be from during the reign of Mahadathika Mahanaga (9 – 21 AD) belongs to the 1st Century AD. The inscription records a list of tanks, villages and other lands given to Cetagiri, the ancient monastery at Mihintale. More importantly, the inscription consists of the earliest reference to coconut groves in any document from Sri Lanka. The inscription is not entirely intact and certain words in the middle have not been deciphered, however, roughly four groves of coconuts have been gifted to the ancient monastery. While the coconut groves given to the ancient monastery may have not engaged in a commercial activity, it leads us to believe that coconuts were widely cultivated by the people of the island so much so that they were able to gift multiple plantations of coconuts at a time to monastery while also being able to produce enough coconut oil, coir rope, etc to satisfy both domestic and foreign markets.
There is also another interesting inscription I came across in the Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol. II Part 1. The Kasimottai Rock Inscription believed to be from during the reign of King Vasabha belongs to the 2nd Century AD. The inscription records a grant to a vihara, the main purpose of which was to “provide for the smearing with oil of the railing at the summit of the stupa and the chatra”. According to the inscription, the application of oil which took place once every three years was a preservative measure. While the specific oil used was not mentioned in the inscription, the oil itself would have been a wood preservative. After a little bit of searching, I found that Coconut oil is a wood preservative so it may be possible that the oil used in this instance could have been coconut oil. Considering the large-scale cultivation of coconut oil which was taking place during this period, it would make sense that it was coconut oil which was used. However, there is also the possibility that it was sesame oil which is also used as a wood preservative and there is sufficient mention of sesame oil in the Mahavamsa and so on to make it a suitable candidate for the unknown wood preserving oil.
India and the Neighbouring Territories as described by Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi
Both R.A.L.H. Gunawardana and W.I. Siriweera quote Al-Idrisi as support for the claim that Sri Lanka had a well-organised cultivation of coconut and that Sri Lankan coconut-based products had a significant international demand.
India and the Neighbouring Territories as described by Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi was translated by S. Maqbul Ahmed who also had done extensive research into the content provided by Al-Idrisi. According to him, Al-Idrisi was invited to be a geographer in the court of the Norman King of Sicily, Roger II. It was during this time that Al-Idrisi compiled this account of India and its neighbouring territories. It seems that Al-Idrisi himself never travelled to Asia but rather used accounts written by other travellers to the areas and copied them down without much thought or sense. Now while this might sound as if his entire account of “Indian and the Neighbouring Territories” is unreliable it actually isn’t. The accounts he referred to were just only a little older than the 12th century AD which was when this book was written. For example, his account of Sri Lanka was based on “Geography of Claudius Ptolemy” from the 2nd century AD and several other travellers who travelled to Sri Lanka before the 12th century AD. This means that the information we are taking out of “India and the Neighbouring Territories” is from probably around the same period as the Mahadathika Mahanaga inscription mentioned earlier.
Al-Idrisi mentions that the island of Sarandib is rich in all kinds of rubies, precious stones, and rivers of diamonds and that within the island rice, coconuts and sugar cane are grown. The fact that these three are specifically mentioned by the traveller probably implies that they were grown on a large scale and were very clearly spotted.
He then goes on to say, or rather whoever’s account he is referring to, that the “people of Sarandib pay attention to the cultivation of coconuts in the Small Islands situated along its various routes. They take care in preserving this plant and make it available to visitors in expectation of compensation and rewards. Often the inhabitants of Oman and Marbat, belonging to Yemen, go to these islands where coconuts are found. They cut the wood of any coconut tree they like and make rope out of its fibres, with which they tie this wood. Out of it they construct boats and build their masts, and with its leaf, they twine ropes. Then they laid these boats with coconut wood and set out for their countries with it. There they sell it and use it in various ways.” This particular description says a lot with regards to the coconut cultivation in Sri Lanka and it also implies that the cultivation of coconuts in Sri Lanka was something that was widely known by outsiders. The coconut tree trunks were used to make boats, the fibres and leaves for ropes and it is also sold in foreign countries. While I am not entirely sure about the “islands of coconuts”, it is clearly evident that coconut plantations were well established during the first half of the first millennia.
Pujavaliya
The Pujavaliya had two mentions of coconuts and both were from the era of King Parakramabahu II. I had previously mentioned how it was mentioned in the Culavamsathat King Parakramabahu II had requested his Minister Devapathiraja to plant a coconut garden and gift to a vihara in his name. It was this that was mentioned in the Pujavaliya as well. What is interesting about the mention is that Coconuts were called Nalikera (නාළිකෙර). It was the first time I saw it mentioned as such. It was usually called Nali, Neralu or Pulup in the many inscriptions I referred to.
Findings related to Nandana Uyana
Nandana Uyana was a park built by King Parakramabahu I close to his residence, meaning within the citadel for the purpose of beautification and pleasure. The garden consisted of a multitude of plants, creepers, flowers and more importantly, coconut palms.
While I couldn’t find much about the park, it was definitely identified and located within the Citadel and the garden itself was identified by 1901 as per the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report for the year. This particular report mentioned the “historical Nandana Uyana”, which they also called the “King’s Garden” when discussing a pokuna situated near the garden and how the water was carried through the garden via a shallow channel. That was the only mention of the garden which implies that the garden was discovered and identified before 1901 as a description of any kind regarding the garden is not given in this report. However, the report included an extract from the Culavamsa of the garden. In the Culavamsa, it is also mentioned that King Parakramabahu the Great designed yet another garden which was also named Nandana Gardens initially but was changed to Lakuyana. As per Wilhelm Geiger’s translation of the Culavamsa, Lakuyana was gifted to the townspeople so they could make use of the fruits for their daily needs. However, in the 1901 Annual Report extract, it is mentioned that Lakuyana was given to the Order, that is, the maha sangha. It is important to note that Wilhelm Geiger’s translation of the Culavamsa was published several years after 1901.
In “Polonnaruwa: Medieval Capital of Sri Lanka” by Anuradha Seneviratna it is mentioned that the Nandana Uyana designed by King Parakramabahu I and situated within the citadel adjoining the Royal Enclosure was donated to the maha sangha and changed its name to Lakuyana. This leads to the question as to whether Nandana Uyana was indeed gifted to the maha sangha if it was the second garden built by Parakramabahu which was gifted or if either of the parks were gifted at all.
According to the Culavamsa, King Parakramabahu I built more than two gardens so we can be sure that he must have donated at least one of them to the maha sangha.
In the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report for 1902 it is stated that the excavation in Polonnaruwa began in 1900 and that the clearing of the “Promontory overlooking Topa-vewa which covered one of the uyan formed by Parakramabahu the Great” have been taking place since 1900. This suggests that more than one park built by King Parakramabahu the Great had been identified by the Archaeological department by 1900.
The task now would be to hopefully find the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report for the year 1900 and collect the information it gives with respect to the Nandana Uyana and also clarify the confusion between the same and Lakuyana.
From this month’s findings, it is clearly evident that there has been a well-established practice of coconut cultivation and plantations and that there was a significant demand for Sri Lanka’s coconut-based products. Coconut oil was also heavily used not only for oiling ropes on ships but to light sacred lamps in kovils and most probably temples too. There is evidence in the form of the inscription from the 1st Century AD that coconut plantations were thriving on the island were gifted to viharas. There is also the possibility considering the extent of the coconut cultivation within the island that coconut oil was used as a wood preservative and applied once every few years on Stupas. The vast cultivation of coconuts in the island suggests that Coconut-based products, from the tree trunks, to leaves, to fibres, to flowers, to water were used as part of the daily routine of the islander and that the Coconut palms were also of high quality if Sri Lanka’s shores were frequented by ships sailing in the Indian Ocean. Due to all of the above reasons, it is evident from Al-Idrisi’s account that the people of Sri Lanka took special care when it came to the cultivation of coconuts.
To find more regarding Nandana Uyana, I will attempt to track down some of the books referred to by Anuradha Seneviratna for his book “Polonnaruwa: Medieval Capital of Sri Lanka” and hopefully find the 1900 Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report.
1. Culavamsa LXXXVI vv 5-45
2. Culavamsa LXXIII v 99
3. Epigraphia Zeylanica Vol. 6 Part 1 No. 08
4. Epigraphia Zeylanica Vol. 6 Part 1 No. 10
5. Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol. II Part I, No. 21
6. Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol. II Part I, No. 48
7. India and the Neighbouring Territories as described by Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi, p. 27
8. Culavamsa LXXXVI vv 5-45
9. Culavamsa LXXIII v 99
10. Culavamsa LXXIX v 3
11. Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report 1901 – North and Central Provinces, p. 13
References
Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report 1901
Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report 1902
Culavamsa Part I translated by Wilhelm Geiger
Culavamsa Part II translated by Wilhelm Geiger
Epigraphia Zeylanica Volume 6 Part I
India and the Neighbouring Territories as described by Al-Sharif Al-Idrisi translated by S. Maqbul Ahmad
Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol. II Part 1
Polonnaruwa: Medieval Capital of Sri Lanka by Anuradha Seneviratna
Pujavaliya
Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea by Senake Bandaranayake, Lorna Dewaraja, Roland Silva, K.D.G. Wimalaratne